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| Research Training Seminars (Current) XIMB FPM Leaflet Seminar Reports 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 | | Research World, Vol. 2, 2005 Research Training Seminars at XIMB: 2004-2005 [Foreword] Welcome to the Research World!
Issues covered: * Generic capabilities of researchers * Research as unfinished story * Convergence/ divergence of Research output * Changing meaning of Research Environment * Traditional model of research * New models of research * Research quality * Observational closure * Coordination The Seminar started off with an informal discussion on how basic concepts of research (such as model, theory, process, system, object, knowledge, etc.) can be systematically analyzed in the present forum. The Institute's research oriented courses were highlighted; so was the need for extensive reading and study of these issues that should go hand in hand with higher level discussions such as the one intended for the current session. This was exactly what transpired in this seminar as indicated below. The above preliminary remarks led to an interesting analogy of the research process with that of physical exercise. The fitness that results from a pursuit of any form of exercise increases the general ability of the person to engage in other forms of exercise as well. This in turn led to the observation that research is a continual, on-going activity. The interesting example of an 'unfinished story' illustrates this point more clearly. The understanding of what is meant by 'research environment' is also changing. Here the shift is from 'the community of researchers' to a more inclusive, wider environment where 'users' of the research output are increasingly becoming a part of the research environment. The output of any research activity either converges (by meeting the expectations through continued improvement) or diverges (by frustrating expectations despite continued attempts at improvement) leading to a collapse of the model. So the flexibility and improvability of research output becomes indicators of its value. However in this context it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "progress" and convergence. Dr. Dash spoke about the basic components of the traditional approach to research. These are: Observation, Process, and Output. The output generates newer observations giving rise to the looping, and iterating process of research as discussed above. The term Observation here possesses a wider meaning than its common usage and embraces forms of data gathering that includes reports, self-reports, stories etc. These are processed in such a way that the output is independent, self-justifiable and needing no further external support for its validity. The output is deemed to be of importance to some community whether this is one of practitioners, the research community or any one else. However, this model is facing increasing challenges, leading to the following questions: * What exactly is observation? What can limit it? * What about the fact that this type of a cycle happens in everyday life unlabelled as research? * What about the change in the research environment? How does one handle issues like change in expectations? Newer models might be helpful in confronting some of these issues more effectively. One model that emerged during the course of the discussion had the following components. * Learning to walk - The stage of initiation into the research process and systems. * Evaluation - Evaluation of observations made. * Abstraction? Theory - The findings of the research. * Politics of Control - Users - The process of influencing research especially, the selection of the research question. A more general model (from Gerard de Zeeuw): * Inputs - The starting points that could range from stories to sounds * Comparison - The process of analyzing the inputs based on some criteria * Criteria - The basis of comparison * Language - The vocabulary and combination rules (grammar) of research * Public - Those who have a stake in the outcome of the research The question of quality in research is an extremely difficult concept to address. One way of looking at this would be through a progressive approach that examines the process of research one layer at a time. Here attempts are made to distinguish between research and non-research first and good research and bad research next and so on progressively. One of the most important ways of ensuring that we have not 'fooled ourselves' is by verifying whether the results of the research stand the test of replication or not. In other words they should be observable by anyone who wished to ascertain the correctness of their conclusions. Now, if results are observable, the inputs and methods used for analyzing them should also be observable. This leads us to an important attribute of research known as "observational closure". Further, the fact that what is observed and what are considered observable are social constructs prompts us to address the question of "coordination of observations". This can only be carried forward if further issues dealing with "coordination of communications" and "coordination of activities" are also examined. Proceeding on these lines, the idea of research seems to be closely related to the idea of improving coordination in different domains. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.2 D. P. Dash, XIMB (dpdash[at]ximb.ac.in) Guide: Kawalek, J. P. (2004). Systems Thinking and Knowledge Management: Positional Assertions and Preliminary Observations. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 21(1), 17-36. Part 1 A doctoral research project on improving the organisation of new product development (NPD) processes was discussed. The project is designed on the basis of multiple case study research method. The cases have produced insights into some of the key areas in the NPD process. It was explored whether combining such insights can produce a 'conceptual model' and the necessary understanding to organise NPD processes in a better way. This led to a discussion on the nature and role of 'models' in research. It was suggested that 'models' provide a link between past and future observations. In other words, models based on past observations can potentially reduce the effort required for future observations (e.g., through explanation, prediction, control, etc.). A distinction was proposed among three classes of models: (i) models having universal applicability (also called universal laws), (ii) models that hold good under some constraints of time and space (also called theories), and (iii) models that represent a much more specific local phenomenon. It was suggested that all these models attempt to capture some aspects of a complex reality, relevant to a research situation at hand. However, a decision as to which type of model is best suited to a given situation seems to depend upon the broad perspective one adopts with respect to research, e.g., singularism or pluralism (or positive or normative, etc.) While it is possible to argue that research should ultimately help us understand the complex reality, another alternative stance would be that research should help us act effectively in the complex reality. Following this argument, a further distinction between 'model of something' versus 'model for achieving something' was discussed. Especially when we find it difficult to subsume empirical diversity under well-defined conceptual categories (or models), we may still have the freedom to introduce something new in a situation that produces some new type of convergence. This was illustrated with the example of building a culture of trust and mutual appreciation in an organisation or a group, by introducing specific rules of interaction. This kind of process can also be treated as research, provided the specific rules of interaction and their power of producing the desired type of convergence becomes systematically contestable and improvable in multiple contexts-of-use. Part 2 Discussions on 'Knowledge Management' often begin by attempting to clarify the meaning of 'knowledge'. This is of course, an arduous task as there can be a number of varied interpretations. Moreover, the assertion that knowledge can somehow be managed has also been controversial. To start with, this session merely sought to differentiate between 'knowledge' and 'views'. One of the key differences is that Knowledge denotes observable categories created through research where as views are merely opinions not yet subjected to systematic contestation possible through a research framework. Much like the case of views and opinions, some models that evolve in the area of Management have problems in attaining the methodological ideal of observational closure. In other words, they remain closely attached to the proponent of these models and do not meet the criteria of 'observer independence'. One important reason for this might be that organizations are far too complex and it is extremely difficult for an individual researcher to come up with a truly 'separable' model that would be applicable with equal effectiveness in all situations. Another reason might be that management thinkers often encourage a subjective approach in the study of organisations. A typical example would be the exhortation to look at threats as opportunities or to find strengths in the organization's weaknesses. Is there a way out of this predicament? Knowledge Management as discussed in the guide document for the seminar seemed to offer a framework for resolving some of these issues. Attention was drawn to the different sources of knowledge as proposed by Earl in 1996. These were: * Science - Knowledge that bases itself on accepted theories and procedures. * Judgment - Knowledge that bases itself on probabilistic parameters and policy rules. * Experience - Knowledge that bases itself on observational data that is yet to be subjected to scientific scrutiny. The above three sources can be associated with three alternative 'systems of inquiry'. The first one achieves observational closure through empirical regularities. The second one achieves it through statistical convergence (to which the Law of Large Numbers refers). The third one hints at the possibility of self-constructed convergence (e.g., self-organisation) through the transfer of experiences in a multi-agent environment. There is a dichotomy here between operational knowledge derived from experience and knowledge generated by the classical mode of research. The difference between a question and a 'research question', or the difference between a problem and 'research problem' can be discussed from this standpoint. However, what is of more relevance is the way in which different processes of operation and knowledge are connected. Kawalek proposes a model that involves two parallel strands of systems that enrich each other. One is at the operational level and the other at the knowledge development level. In designing 'systems of inquiry', applied disciplines like management seem to be interested in achieving operational improvements through developing knowledge. As Kawalek suggests, this aim requires that the process of knowledge development be coupled with the operational process needing some improvement. Considering the complexity and dynamism in the operational system, the knowledge development system should also have 'requisite variety', i.e., allow multiple types of convergence to be achieved, rather than remain attached to any single ideal of inquiry. Inspired by such a 'methodological pluralism', research in applied disciplines can become venues for production, appraisal, selection, and adoption of different forms of knowledge, within the very context-of-use, where research and management of knowledge become parts of one and the same operation. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.3 V. Ranganathan, IIM, Bangalore (ranga[at]iimb.ernet.in) Guide: Ranganathan, V. (2004). How to reduce T&D losses: Study for 12th Finance Commission (Draft Final Report). Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore. One of the important developments in the business scenario of India is the shifting of some of the important sectors from the direct government control to regulated environment(quasi government control or quasi market control). Such a shift throws several challenges to the corporate world and the academic world. The economics of regulation has two aspects. Traditional theory provides guiding principles. These define the goal of economic efficiency and provide rules for achieving it. The Second deals with the relations between various institutional arrangements, market structures, systems of incentives, laws and administrative procedures. In India, the power sector regulation is in a very nascent stage, but the power sector problems are not new. Some of the questions facing us are as follows: * Is regulation an answer to the present problems of the sector? * What form of regulation is feasible? Cost-based or Performance-based? * Is it possible to ensure independence of the regulator? * How to address the information asymmetry between the regulator and the regulated enterprises? * Is there a need for regulating the regulator? The above questions lead the researcher to fundamental issues regarding the nature and effectiveness of regulation. At a deeper level they point to the 'governability' of any system given the varied interests of agents and stakeholders in them. The report under discussion was a study of one of the key components of power sector reforms viz. reducing transmission and distribution losses. Information asymmetry between the regulator and the licensee was a crucial problem in this area. Since uniform methods of reporting losses are yet to evolve, the key agents have the freedom of misreporting figures to suit their motives. Thus the chief challenge to the ‘governability’ of such complex systems is the distributed nature of the knowledge involved. Various stakeholders possess disconnected pieces of information making coordination and control by a central authority extremely difficult. Can alternate models of governance, compatible with such distributed knowledge environments emerge from research? The spirited discussion between representatives of various stakeholders of Orissa's power sector, who were present in the seminar, highlighted the complexity of issues involved in power sector regulation. What is the role of researchers in such multi-actor contexts? The Indian market scenario is vastly different from more mature economies where the mere publication of information by the regulator can spur market forces. The need for developing models that can work in such complex environments can only be satisfied by better coordination between theorists and practitioners. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DV Ramana and DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.4 Suneeta Mishra, FPM Scholar, XLRI-AHRD (suneeta_mishra[at]hotmail.com) Part 1 General Issues regarding doctoral level research in management were discussed. Narrowing down on an area of potential research is not an easy task. Many factors affect this process of selection. Prominent among them is one's work experience. Typically, problems encountered at the workplace coagulate into a few broad research questions. The process of further narrowing down these into researchable problems goes through iterations at many levels. Sometimes, new problems get identified and old ones are substantially modified as one goes along. The very process of going through this comparatively unstructured endeavor provides the researcher with an orientation that stresses academic discipline. Given the rigor needed for this, a full-time commitment to the program is recommended. Such an undivided involvement also ensures adequate interaction with the chosen Guide for the program. Ideally the Guide is someone who has carried out substantial studies in an area related to the research theme. Often a person's choice of the research problem enables him/her to narrow down to a few potential Guides. Part 2 The above process of reduction and selection was in evidence in the study under discussion that sought to analyze the effects of information technology on alienation at the workplace. The various meanings of alienation were defined and an appropriate subset was identified to be applicable for the study. The set of Internet technologies that enable collaboration at the workplace was another variable in the study. Human Resource Climate and Modern HR Practices were also similarly defined as intervening variables. The unit of analysis, the nature and scope of the research problem and various other factors determine the choice of method and tools. A set of alternative approaches and methods for answering the research questions (or exploring the research issues) should be considered and the most suitable one should be selected for implementation in the research project. Since no method is without its limitations, adequate care should be taken to ensure that the results are of an acceptable quality. Such issues are generally discussed under the label 'methodological considerations'. The study found that networked employees tend to be less alienated, suggesting a strong inverse interlink between connectivity and alienation at the workplace. Both traditional HR and Innovative HR efforts were also found to have a strong inverse relationship with the level of work alienation. There was some discussion on the process of hypothesis testing within research. Typically, null hypotheses are set up in such a way that they are expected to be rejected by the data collected. When a null hypothesis does not get rejected by the data collected, then the research is generally treated as inconclusive. The immediate practical application of such studies done in academic environments is an area of interest for many scholars. Researchers also typically suggest possible future directions for carrying forward their work. All these probably point to the fact that like most serious studies, a doctoral research never really comes to an absolutely conclusive end. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.5 D. P. Dash, XIMB (dpdash[at]ximb.ac.in) Guide: Hacking, Ian (1975). The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical Study of Early Ideas about Probability, Induction and Statistical Inference. London: Cambridge University Press. (Chapters 1-4) Part 1 Varied images of Science (or research) exist in academic discussions. Science could be examined as a body of knowledge, as a practice or as a form of interaction among independent observers/actors. Numerous attempts have been made to demarcate science from non-science or pseudo-science. One very commonly proposed distinction is between Science and Art. The former is normally understood to be a body of objective knowledge whereas the latter is concerned with subjectivity, creativity, values, actions, application of knowledge, use of tools, etc. However, such a demarcation process breaks down when we see that all these elements of art are also present in science or scientific practice! Therefore, the issue of demarcation needs other types of analysis. There was a discussion about employing notions of activity, aim, and method to segregate research from non-research. However, these too have not altogether been successful, as scholars have raised a number of difficulties with these. Lakatos opines that research projects cannot be differentiated and that only research programs (consisting of a series of projects) are amenable for demarcation. Some scholars have expanded this further and concluded that what we should examine are research traditions that consist of a series of programs. Feyerabend takes an extreme view on this and states that all discussions on demarcation are futile as differentiating research from something that is not, is impossible. De Zeeuw prefers to leave the whole question to the requirements of the particular area of research being studied and entrusts the researchers with the responsibility of constructing suitable demarcation criteria that enable them to conduct meaningful research in their emerging research contexts. Comparison and grouping of observations are central to research and criteria employed for this are important devices that could differentiate research from non-research. A true scientific class can be developed only if stringent criteria that achieve observational closure are employed. Social acceptability or endorsement by an authority is not sufficient for this. A scientific class and its members are inter-dependent, but can prevail without support from an external authority. This is what Hacking refers to as the 'evidence provided by things'. Often it is easier to study changes of a class over time than to define and establish the class a priori. The 'Contestablity' or 'Falsifiability' of research is another characteristic that sets it apart from other activities. A genuine researcher tends to assert with Karl R. Popper that "all theories are hypotheses and that all may be overthrown". Part 2 Ian Hacking identifies two aspects for probability. One is an epistemological attempt at examining the credibility of propositions in the light of judgment or evidence. Many modern philosophers view it as a relation between a hypothesis and the evidence for it. In other words, probability operates at the stage where a sign is turned into evidence. The other is the statistical aspect concerned with the laws of chance and the tendency of certain events to produce stable frequencies. The Probability that an event E occurs is usually expressed as P(E) = [Number of times E occurs / Total number of outcomes] when the number of trials tends to infinity. This notion is also expressed as the long-run relative frequency. In some cases, as the total number of trials approaches infinity, P(E) tends to converge to a particular value. This tendency to converge could be viewed as a property of an infinite sequence. Can we consider the 'sequence' itself as an object with stable properties? 'Infinite sequence' as a potential scientific object seems to fulfill the conditions necessary for a genuine scientific class that we discussed earlier. Thus the class of 'large sequence' becomes the object, and consists of a number of instances of specific large sequences. The tendency to converge is a property of this scientific object. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.6 Ananta Giri, MIDS, Chennai and Alborg Univ., Denmark (aumkrishna[at]yahoo.com) Guide: Knowledge and Human Liberation: Jürgen Habermas, Sri Aurobindo, and Beyond. (Draft Version). The centrality of knowledge in research has always been a dominant theme in academic conversations. This is particularly true in the current context where we are continually being invited to be part of a knowledge society. Philosophical discourses have explored this through a variety of approaches. Foucault links power with knowledge. Aurobindo urges us to understand the integral bond of knowledge and love. Habermas identifies knowledge with human interest and distinguishes four elements of this. These are cognitive interest, practical interest, emancipatory interest and the interest of reason to protect itself from unreason. Knowledge is usually understood to include knowledge of self, society, and nature. Knowledge of the self emerges through a variety of practices that may not always be reducible to social processes. Self is understood as a techno-practitioner (social/economic agent), as the unconscious, or with a transcendental dimension. However at the root of all these approaches is a dualism that emphasizes the boundaries between the organism and its environment. Thus they fail to illustrate the comprehensiveness of knowledge by not going beyond the boundaries of anthropocentrism. Social movements are important agents in knowledge creation. Recent protests against institutions of global hegemony are examples of this. Some of these strive to augment our knowledge about the fragility of our environment through stories and songs. These convey meanings at a deeper level, rising above the limitations of cognition to touch emotions. The realms of public conversation are also changing. Cafés and saloons have given way to a transnational public sphere. The idea of the nation as the dominant mode of self and group identity is increasingly being disputed. Practicing dialogue beyond confrontation, realizing the importance of listening and moving beyond political issues to moral and spiritual questions continue to be challenges for our times. Public dialogue contains within it, the seeds of critical self-knowledge. Conversation is simultaneously a participatory process and an autonomous practice. Self-reflection is at the core of human interest and the tendency to accentuate societal processes of knowledge and communication above other practices of self-cultivation such as listening, silence and self-emptying is erroneous. Here, the limits of language to capture one’s ideas of self also need to be recognized. Though emancipatory in nature, language can be enchaining if we are not careful. This is one reason why silence is profoundly valued in India. Discourses on emancipation have primarily focused on social emancipation. Liberation should also imply freedom from our constant urge to control – a tendency that both natural and social sciences have nurtured for long. The challenge lies in re-evaluating this unquestioned urge for domination over nature and to realize the limits of control. There is a need to broaden our understanding of liberation to embrace the emancipation of the Self from the Ego. Knowledge tends to be deeply rooted in its own particular contexts and freeing it from these often seems impossible. Even intuition, though not determined by contexts, emerges out of particular contexts. How can we achieve true trans-contextual knowledge? Comparative studies attempt to do this by seeking to open up contextual closure to construct conceptual connections between different contexts. By transcending beyond individual contexts, they forge a more general platform of meaning from which each context becomes recognizable. This leads us to the question of border-crossing in knowledge. The design of an enquiry often consists of attempts to create borders for knowledge whether disciplinary or methodological. However, the danger lies in the fact that these divisions can turn into beliefs and guides for practice. Thus it is essential to emphasize the limits of knowledge. Though protecting reason is central to the creation of knowledge, an uncritical defense of reason itself could be dangerous. The role of knowledge in facilitating oppression and injustice also needs to be examined. Sometimes knowledge takes on a post factum justificatory role. The purposeful avoidance of contentious issues in public discourses is another area of concern. The commodification of knowledge especially in the context of recent legislations regarding intellectual property rights also needs to be critically examined. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.7 D. P. Dash, XIMB (dpdash[at]ximb.ac.in) Guide: Popper, Karl R. (1972). Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach (Chapter 1: Conjectural Knowledge: My Solution to the Problem of Induction). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Some useful links on the problem of induction: http://www.faragher.freeserve.co.uk/induct.htm http://dieoff.org/page126.htm http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/popper One way to look at the development of any discipline is through an investigation of the problems that are examined by it. These problems could be two-fold. One set of problems is created by the discipline itself. They characteristically arise from inconsistencies within the axiomatic space of the discipline. The second set of problems is forced upon the discipline from outside its boundaries. These problems originate through practical needs or when predictions made on the basis of existing theories do not hold good. The capability of a discipline to generate its own problems is most often an indication of its sophistication. The problem of induction is basic to human inquiry in any discipline. The Scottish philosopher, David Hume (1711-1776) discussed the difficulty of logically justifying general conclusions based on specific experiences. Karl Raimund Popper (1902-1994), the Austrian-born British philosopher, formulated Hume's philosophical analysis in terms of two problems -- the logical and the psychological. The logical problem asserts that we cannot justifiably reason from instances of which we have experience to other instances of which we have no experience. The psychological problem questions why people believe and have expectations following the above mode of reasoning. Hume concludes that this was because of custom or habit. Popper distinguishes between 'observation statements' and 'theory statements'. He, like Hume, asserts that no number of observation statements would enable us to justify that a theory statement is true. However, he claims that on the basis of the truth or falsity of certain observation statements, we can justify that a particular theory statement is false. This constitutes an explanation of how scientific knowledge progresses. This method of falsification can be used to choose among a number of competing alternative theories. Popper introduces the idea of 'degree of corroboration' to explain this further. This is an evaluation of the past performance of the theory and the tests it has withstood vis-à-vis other theories. Any new theory should have succeeded not only where its predecessors failed but where they had succeeded as well. In this sense we can affirm that the new theory is better than the old one since it has achieved a higher degree of corroboration. It should be noted that the superiority of the theory with a higher degree of corroboration is rooted in the past. It does not make us capable of reliably predicting the future. This incapability is sometimes viewed as a deterrent to the scientist who seeks the absolute reliability of his/her findings. However a theoretician may well be encouraged to propose new theories again and again in the hope that one of them might survive. What prompts us to rely on our pragmatic belief in the results of induction is our instinctive need for regularities. Is this necessarily irrational? Popper argues that a selection of the best-corroborated theory is rationally sound as there is no better alternative to it at a particular time. N.B.: Ms. Sumita Mishra, <fpm02_sumita_m[at]mdi.ac.in>, Second Year FPM Scholar, MDI, Gurgaon, visited us during the seminar and presented a brief overview of the Fellow Programme in Management offered by MDI. The scholars pursue PG-level core courses in management during the first 9 months. A deeper level understanding of their area of specialization is achieved through doctoral-level courses (2 compulsory and 6 electives). The compulsory courses at this level include Philosophy and Methodology of Creating Knowledge (PMCK), offered by Prof. Rajen Gupta and a course on Teaching and Learning Methodology. The elective courses at this level include four from the knowledge domain of one’s interest and two from other domains. Students could take a Course of Independent Study (CIS) on any topic in relation to their research interest, in lieu of one of the four electives in that domain. This enables them to develop research propositions and to pilot test them. A case-writing assignment is also an important component at this stage. A formal thesis proposal is made next and the submission and defense of one's thesis constitutes the final stage of this programme. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.8 Susmita Misra, IMRB, Chennai (susmita.misra[at]imrbint.com) Guides: 1. Muhamed, M., "Try observational research." Hindu Business Line, September 20, 2001. Available at: http://www.blonnet.com/businessline/catalyst/2001/09/20/stories/1920o05d.htm 2. Livingston, Sharon., "Controlling The Alter Leader in Focus Group Research. Where They Sit Can Tell You Where They Stand!". Available at: http://www.executive-solutions.com/art/2.shtml Like in other applied disciplines, research in management is often driven by specific operational requirements. Here, the propensity for explicit theorizing of the kind employed in fundamental research comes under the moderating influence of criteria such as practical usefulness and efficient action. Some scholars assert that the real difference between basic and applied research is not the presence or absence of practical applications, but the time lag before practical applications appear. On many occasions researchers find that the boundary between these methods are at best blurred, and that a strict classification is not always possible. Market research is a category that exemplifies the peculiarities of applied studies. One distinct feature is the overtly client-oriented nature of this type of research. It is also restricted by specific demands of time and money. Unlike other forms of academic research that endeavor to propose reliable explanations, these studies produce dependable guides for managerial action. This however, is becoming increasingly challenging in a hyper-competitive and fast changing environment. Qualitative research is increasingly being employed as a powerful method of inquiry in this context. It can be used effectively when one is seeking to gain insights into a problem or to outline an intended research study. Knowing consumers intimately to understand reasons for their behaviors is immensely aided by qualitative methods. Many studies employ both quantitative and qualitative components complementarily to leverage the strengths of both approaches. Various tools of market research like observational feedback, usage and attitude studies, advertising tracking etc., have qualitative components or can be supplemented by qualitative methods. Understanding the specific research need is the first step of a meaningful qualitative study. The problem is then placed in the context of the larger competitive environment and a target group best suited for the study is chosen. A suitable method for the study has to be identified next. At a broad level, these methods can be classified into focus-group discussions and in-depth interviews. Small groups like families and friendship pairs are studied through a variety of methods including interviews, moderated discussions and observation. Group variables like size and homogeneity play an important role in the generation of meaningful data. Researchers need to understand and manage group dynamics and individual behavior to obtain more useful results from these exercises. Data is generated through projective techniques that include product-personification, sentence-completion, obituary-writing analogy-formation, collage-creation, role-plays etc. Each of the above techniques has its own advantages and disadvantages, and a choice is made keeping in mind the specific nature of the problem, budgetary constraints, and time available for the project. The starting point for these decisions typically is the requirement of the client for whom the study is to be undertaken. Characteristics of the target group and the larger competitive environment within which the firm operates are also important determinants of this. Qualitative methods rely heavily on interpretation of data generated by the study. They typically study individuals or small groups and focus on 'understanding' and not 'measuring'. Special care is taken to see deeper meaning and by demarcating manifest content (what is said) from latent content (what is meant). Efforts are also made to maximize the range and variety of the information gathered by taking into account beliefs, practices and attitudes of the group and individuals. The primary data generated thus, is analyzed, following set procedures that ensure checks and balances for accuracy and reliability of the conclusions drawn. One way of ensuring ease of analysis is through a process of mechanical organization of the data by arranging it under specific, standardized 'analysis heads'. The data is revisited a number of times to eliminate the problem of selective memory and to obtain a macro picture of the findings. The analysis is done at many levels to ensure more useful interpretations. The conclusions are structured and summarized in a standardized format giving justifications where necessary. Results from such qualitative studies may be used to formulate specific quantitative studies such as experiments or surveys. In some cases the results may be used directly in formulating marketing communications, new product concepts etc. The process of generating accurate and reliable data and synthesizing these and deducing valid conclusions from them throw up many challenges for the qualitative researcher. The conspicuousness of the researcher and other facilitators and moderators in groups may often influence responses. Increasingly, persons involved in these studies as subjects are also questioning the intentions of the research and asserting their stakes in these exercises and the use of the results obtained. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.9 Parameshwar P. Iyer, IISc, Bangalore (piyer[at]csic.iisc.ernet.in) This seminar dealt with issues regarding the use of cases both in teaching and research. There was also a discussion on some issues associated with the treatment of management as a discipline. Case analysis has its roots in the disciplines of law and medicine. In recent times, cases have become popular tools in management education. This approach aims to simulate a real-world managerial situation in the classroom. It provides a basis to illustrate the complexities of managerial decision-making and seeks to understand the unpredictable dynamics of the human behaviour in such situations. This is expected to enhance the students' capacity for efficiently dealing with real-world, complex business situations. Case analysis develops the learner's ability to look beyond the obvious, albeit in a simulated environment. Cases rooted in a particular socio-economic milieu are often used in classrooms, as students can understand the various cultural, political and economic issues involved, much more intimately. However, rather than merely finding solutions to problems, case oriented learning should aim to provide the learner with an ability to develop his/her skills in evidential form of reasoning. Students can learn how tangible components like concepts, models, tools and techniques can be used in conjunction with intangible components like ethics, judgments, perspectives and values. Important skills for case analysis include the ability to identify relevant information without getting overwhelmed by data and the competence to justify the feasibility and desirability of one's recommendations. Since a case can never be considered as fully complete, the ability to arrive at decisions with incomplete information is also important. This leads to a capability to take a considered stance, which may not always be totally satisfactory from all viewpoints. Taking a stance is also important to facilitate a rational discussion. For example, only when a stance is clearly stated does its refutation become possible. Apart from its use as a teaching tool, case studies are used widely in research. These studies seek to do a detailed analysis of the problem at hand within a particular real life context recognizing complexity, and focusing on exploration and deep understanding. Comparative case analysis is a technique that seeks to highlight higher order patterns that transcend the analysis of a single case. A researcher has to exercise care in deciding what to analyze in this situation and how the findings across cases should be compared. Here, it is important that the scholarly traditions of the domain be taken into account in doing this comparison. This led to a discussion on some issues related to the problems of treating 'management' as a discipline with its own set of practices and concepts. It draws from a number of domains in humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. In this sense, the boundaries of management as a discipline seem to be loosely defined. One way to look at management is as a study of the firm. However, the firm's boundaries as understood by researchers and practitioners are also in a constant state of flux. On the one hand, it is expanding to include larger societal and environmental issues, and on the other hand more and more emphasis is being laid on understanding individual and collective behaviour. Another school of thought tries to address this issue by approaching the discipline as a study of human action (i.e., andragology). Human action is studied in different contexts so as to improve upon those actions and to bring about desirable changes by applying the tools of research in practical contexts. Yet another way to demarcate the domain of management would be to approach it as a creative forum that brings about a productive engagement among various disciplines. This interfacing ability that enables management to act as an interdisciplinary bridge needs to be recognized as one of its chief strengths. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.10 D. P. Dash, XIMB (dpdash[at]ximb.ac.in) Guide: Checkland, P. B. (1985). From Optimization to Learning: A Development of Systems Thinking for the 1990s. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 36 (9), 757-767. [Also reprinted as Chapter 3 in Flood, R.L. and Jackson, M.C. (Eds) 1991. Critical Systems Thinking: Directed Readings, Chichester: Wiley.] This seminar dealt with the following issues: * A model for the organized use of rational thought * Co-existence of multiple frameworks * Hard systems and soft systems methodologies * Goal seeking v/s relationship maintaining * Accommodation v/s problem solving * Methodological issues concerning SSM Management and allied fields such as policy studies are sometimes described as fields that facilitate ‘rational intervention in human affairs’. Peter B. Checkland opines that in such fields, the twin concepts of theory and practice are more closely tied to each other than in other fields. He proposes a way to make a distinction between theories on the one hand and methodology used to apply these in a particular area of application on the other. According to this model, the methodology employed in a study springs from an intellectual framework (F) or a basic set of ideas. This methodology (M) helps in purposeful and organized application of these ideas to a particular area (A). All these elements are intimately linked in such a way that the methodology not only influences and changes the area of application, but also the intellectual framework and the methodology itself. Checkland calls this F-M-A process the organized use of rational thought. There can be multiple frameworks in any given context. This multiplicity does not imply that frameworks are totally different or mutually exclusive. They may have sizable common components and their apparent difference may only be superficial. Thus we cannot assert with certainty that only one of them is true or useful. More than one framework can be applied to the same situation at the same time. Research can aim to identify processes that lead to the simultaneous development of these frameworks. Thus frameworks help in defining a methodology for intervention in the domain to improve something. Some frameworks seem to be favored by nature. Herbert Simon calls them natural frameworks. On the other hand, artificial frameworks evolve purely as social products without any apparent natural preference. The quality of our actions improves when we are able to accommodate both of these. The tradition of systems thinking that Checkland categorizes as ‘Hard systems thinking’ regards human systems as goal seeking systems that seek to optimize performance with respect to goals imposed from outside. However, such an approach is possible only at the level of very simplified abstraction of real world complexities. Though they are neither complete nor perfect, they are sometimes good enough for a limited purpose. Another problem with this approach is that goals are continually changing and thus any results based on the particular goal as its basis would not be very useful. Checkland proposes that the concept of ‘relationship-maintaining’, originally proposed by Geoffery Vickers, is more fruitful than the concept of goals seeking. Relationship maintaining is achieved through the cyclic process of ‘appreciation’ that constantly compares our standards and norms with perceptions, modifying the very standards and norms in the process. This approach is the cornerstone of the proposed Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). It seeks convergence through a cyclic process that employs learning and not optimizing. Thus SSM does not recognize models ‘of’ some phenomenon but a model that aids a discussion about this phenomenon. This process seeks accommodations rather than solutions. The relationship between Hard and Soft systems Methodologies is not one of mutual exclusion. The former is best viewed as a particular case of the latter. Many researchers observe that the cyclical process of refinement of framework, methodology and area of application employed in SSM never really comes to an end. This makes it impossible to zero-in on a particular methodology for the study. Another observation points out that multiple frameworks are sometimes incommensurable; i.e., one cannot be evaluated from the standpoint of another. However, the type of convergence (or accumulation) possible under soft systems thinking may have to be understood from a standpoint very different from classical research methodology. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.11 Alok K Chakrabarti (chakrabarti[at]njit.edu) This seminar dealt with the following issues: * Theoretical issues in technology management * Evolution of the field * Globalization and technology management * Industry-academia interaction Research focus in technology could be at the micro, macro-corporate or macro-regional levels. One model that illustrates research in technology management at the macro-regional level is the Myers-Marquis model. This is an attempt to establish a linkage between the state of technology at a particular time with the economic and social conditions prevailing at the time. According to this model, potential demand and the current technical feasibility are compared to evolve a ‘design concept’. Further refinement of this concept is done with available information and new knowledge developed through research and innovation. The solution thus advances the state of the technology and if adopted, it has profound influence on the socio-economic situation as well. Thus, technology management has evolved as a discipline with contributions from behavioral, economic, and quantitative domains. Organizations adopted information technology in the past with the aim of integrating various divisions of the organization. Today the emphasis is shifting to the role of technology as a key enabler of value chain integration. New technology development efforts can also be looked at from the twin perspectives of newness and customer centeredness. A co-evolution of technology and the market leads to a high degree of newness and the capability to attract a large number of new users for the product. It was argued that the understanding of this process is no longer linear but iterative and the control is shifting from single ownership to collaborative systems of innovation. The emphasis is not on technology per se, but on knowledge. This process, operating in a triangle of coordination, collaboration and cooperation with trust at its center was also illustrated. In an era of increasing globalization, it is imperative that firms be competitive. One important way to achieve this is by appropriate investment in research and development. However, some firms opt to procure technology than develop it in-house. This transformation of technology as a tradable asset has only been facilitated in the modern era. ICT clusters that specialize in certain types of technology development have prospered around specific locations in various countries. Capabilities for technology identification and absorption are key strengths of the modern organization. Various arrangements exist, to enable optimal use of the products of innovation. Patents play an increasingly important role in this. Strategies for patenting differ from industry to industry. Some companies like Coca Cola have competitive strategies that rely on mechanisms other than patents, to achieve their objectives. It was pointed out that the collaboration between academia and industry becomes increasingly important in this context. However, the problem-solving knowledge that the industry craves for, is not easily available in academia. There exists a gap between this demand and the work done in universities today. This is due to the mismatch in a number of factors. These factors could be structural (as in the difference of organizational structures), cognitive (as in the difference regarding perceptions of time) or related to content (as in the difference of languages employed by both). The Pasteur quadrant proposed by Donald E Stokes offers a model for understanding this dichotomy. It categorizes research efforts as seeking either fundamental understanding (pure basic) or catering to considerations of use (pure applied). The former is exemplified by the work of Neils Bohr and the latter by that of Thomas Alva Edison. However some researchers like Louis Pasteur have succeeded in achieving high degrees of both. It was explained that the knowledge generated through research is transferred in a number of ways. Tacit knowledge can only be transferred through personal modes. This is achieved through the efforts of university graduates, consulting faculty, trainers etc. Explicit knowledge is transferred through personal modes like conferences and also through impersonal modes such as published papers, patents, reports etc. Various modes of academia–industry interaction are implemented in different countries. Many institutions accommodate programs sponsored by the industry. In certain others, the industry is encouraged to be an observer of the work without the power to influence its direction. In countries like Finland, organizations such as 'Tekes' act as nodal points in funding and promoting research in academia, accommodating concerns of the industry. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in> http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.12 Subodh Bhat (sbhat[at]sfsu.edu) Topic 1: Research on Consumers' Reaction to Controversial Advertisements Topic 2: What Drives the Indian High-tech Entrepreneur? Guides: 1. Bhat, S., Leigh, T., and Wardlow D. (1998). "The impact of consumer prejudices on ad processing: heterosexual consumers’ responses to homosexual imagery in ads." Journal of Advertising, 27 (4), 9-28. 2. Bhat, S., Leigh, T., and Wardlow D. (1996). "The effect of homosexual imagery in advertising on attitude toward the ad." Journal of Homosexuality, 31 (1, 2), 161-176. 3. Bhat, S., and McCline, R. (2001, March). “Opportunity framing and networks: an empirical investigation of the role of social context in explaining venture creation by high tech entrepreneurs.” Paper presented at The International Applied Business Research Conference, Cancun, Mexico. The seminar was illustrative of how problems are chosen in current business research and how researchers typically zero in on a particular method to be adopted for a study. In this context, the following three studies were presented: * Heterosexual Consumers’ Responses to Homosexual Imagery in Ads. * Consumers’ Reaction to the Portrayal of Interracial Couples in Ads. * What Drives Indian High-tech Entrepreneurs in the US? PART 1 One of the characteristics of our present times seems to be the ubiquity of advertisements in one form or other. For example, the average American is exposed to 600 to 1000 ads per day. The battle for attention has sometimes led advertisers court controversy, intentionally or otherwise. Advertisers generally assume that processing of ad content and imagery by their audience is homogeneous. However, a few qualitative and small-sample studies have observed that individuals process information in ads differently because of differences in prior attitude or prejudice towards an issue. Two studies on controversial advertisements were discussed in this context. These sought to extend prior research on how a majority group reacts to ads that portray minority groups. The hypotheses for the first study were that heterosexual consumers’ attitude towards homosexuality would moderate their reaction to ads depicting male homosexuals and that emotions would mediate the effect of ad imagery on attitude to the ad and the brand. In the context of the study under discussion, the Seminar Leader differentiated between three types of intervening variables. A confounding variable is one, other than the designated independent variable, that influences the dependent variable profoundly. A mediating variable is one that acts as a link between the independent and dependent variables. A moderating variable intensifies or weakens the relationship between two other variables. 317 college students of whom 245 classified themselves as heterosexual were randomly exposed to a print ad depicting either a homosexual or a heterosexual couple. Cognitive and emotional responses were recorded using various scales. These were analysed to reveal 3 dominant categories of reactions, namely, approval (positive emotions), disapproval (negative emotions), and surprise. Through an analysis using Baron and Kenny’s (1986) approach, the researchers found that heterosexual consumers’ attitude towards homosexuality would moderate their reaction to ads depicting male homosexuals and that emotions would mediate the effect of ad imagery on attitude to the ad and the brand. The study extended prior research by going beyond purely demographic categories to groupings based on lifestyle choices. The moderating factor here was tolerance towards the out-group rather than affiliation within one’s own group, as studied earlier. PART 2 The second study presented was an ongoing project that explores the reaction of consumers to the depiction of interracial couples in advertisements. The pilot study followed an exploratory approach and gathered data on thoughts, feelings and attitudes of consumers towards these advertisements. Content analysis of this qualitative data found the following: * Majority (73%) of comments by respondents concerning the ads featuring mixed-race couples were relationship related. * On the other hand, the majority of comments (72%) about ads featuring same-race couples were product related. However, analysis of responses concerning believability of the relationship of the couples portrayed and the perceived intimacy of these couples did not reveal any predominant patterns. The study aims to further investigate the following: a. Would an interracial couple in an ad be more salient in a predominantly uni-racial community than in a multiracial community? b. Would an ad with an interracial couple be better received among individuals with greater exposure to interracial couples? c. Would a more favourable attitude toward interracial relations, result in a more favourable attitude toward an ad with an interracial couple? d. Is the attitude toward an interracial couple the sum, multiplicative product, or average of the attitudes toward the individual races involved? PART 3 The third study examined the motivations, support systems, networks, attitudes and behaviours of Indian high-tech entrepreneurs in the US. The exploratory study in this case consisted of 24 interviews targeting a wide range of entrepreneur interviewees. Questions were based on, but not restricted to, traditional entrepreneurial frameworks of risk, networks, traits, and processes. A pattern analysis revealed some of the most common factors behind the success of these entrepreneurs. These were entrepreneurial drive, lack of perceived glass ceiling, competitive spirit, lower risk perception, intellectual interest, fiscal conservatism, and family tradition. Facilitating factors cited by the respondents included the importance attached to education in India, curiosity, family support, education and work experience in the US, and existence of formal and informal networks and role models. Negative factors mentioned were factionalism, excessive focus on technology per se and comparatively low levels of communication and marketing skills. Based on the exploratory study, a web-based survey was carried out. An analysis of 80 usable responses from broad sectors of high-tech industry revealed that autonomy, financial rewards and impact on industry were the most widely recognized rewards of entrepreneurship. A good researcher is aware of the limitations of her/his study. Like other approaches, quantitative studies of the kind illustrated above operate with a number of constraints. At the data gathering stage these can include the presence of biases as a consequence of self-reporting, and problems associated with retrospective reporting. The instruments used for gathering data also influence the quality of data at this stage. At the analysis stage, a potential problem could be the assumption of linearity of relationship between the variables studied. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.13 M. K. Samal, Independent Researcher, Bhubaneswar (smanaswee[at]yahoo.co.in) Issues discussed during the seminar: * Professional Practice * Regulation of a Profession * Accounting as a profession * Accounting Research The seminar started the session with a broad definition of ‘profession’. Some of the attributes of a profession as presented were as follows: * Codified knowledge * Formal method of transferring knowledge * Governing/regulatory body * Well-defined code of conduct Based on the above attributes, the seminar leader projected accounting as a profession and raised several issues relating to the regulatory environment of the accounting profession. These included: * Widening gap between the principles and practice of regulation. * Causes of the deviation of practice from letter and spirit of regulation * Relevance of compliance-based regulation. Who should regulate the accounting profession? Several views were presented on this issue. Government or a statutory body can play the role of regulator. However, experience has shown that having a centralized regulatory body is not sufficient to stop undesirable accounting practices. Examples of some of the recent accounting scams (Enron and WorldCom) were given to drive-in the limitations of compliance-based regulation. Such limitations highlight the need for self-regulation. Can accounting profession move from highly centralized regulatory environment to a self-regulating mode? Participants highlighted the role of accounting academicians in creating such an environment. One of the tools being used extensively by the accounting regulators is the accounting standards. The apex body of the profession (for example, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India) issues the accounting standards. A study conducted by the seminar leader on the relevance of standards in India was discussed. Research findings on the gap between the accounting standards and their applicability were shared. The presenter was of the view that though the accounting standards issued by the ICAI are comprehensive, the language of the standards provides scope for manipulation. In this scenario, the two alternatives before regulatory authorities are bringing about stricter regulation through greater number of laws or allowing greater flexibility through lesser regulatory interference. However, it is not clear at present which of these would bring about the desired level of compliance (the focus was on compliance with respect to disclosure of information). There is also a need to establish robust criteria for assessing the quality of disclosure. Issues about the cost of establishing regulation and ensuring compliance to it were also discussed in this context. Very often it is difficult to justify the existence of laws on the basis of a cost-benefit analysis. Accounting Theory and Research: One of the objectives of accounting theory is to explain and predict accounting practice. It was mentioned that researchers should be able to provide theories that are more useful to decision makers in maximizing welfare. This raises further questions like: * Whose welfare? * How to measure the welfare? * Who are the decision makers? There is a lack of clarity in the existing literature on these issues. The development of accounting theories over the years was also discussed: * 19th and Early 20th century: Accounting writers were concerned with describing observed practices and developing rules for teaching. * 1933-34: Concept of regulatory reporting started. This can be attributed to US stock market crash and the US Securities Act. During this period accounting became more concerned with prescribing how firms should report. * 1950s: Studies of Modigliani and Miller (1958) relating to efficient market hypthothesis influenced the prevalent accounting theories. * 1960s: Researchers started relating accounting numbers with economic variables. An attempt to place research in accounting in the context of various research languages was also made. A descriptive language is used in the study of existing state of affairs to unravel inherent, un-constructed standards and patterns in various phenomena. Normative language is employed when studying how various phenomena should adhere to standards constructed by some external authority. Prescriptive language is applied while studying self-constructed standards that function as recommended norms in a particular situation. Though regulatory studies in accounting are typically normative, accounting as a discipline is much wider in scope. While identifying and studying the existing accounting practices, researchers employ a descriptive language that seeks intrinsic patterns and relationships. At other times, when researchers propose a course of action as a response to some exigency, they employ the prescriptive language. So in the wider sense, accounting not only deals with constructed standards imposed extraneously or exogenously, but also inherent and self-constructed standards as well. The objectives of accounting as a practice also need to be reassessed. The conjecture that providing more information can aid better decision-making was questioned. It was found that in many situations, more information could be detrimental to effective decision-making. It was felt that accounting research in India is in a very nascent stage.There are very few studies showing the relationship between market performance and accounting performance. Non-availability of quality data is one of the major constraints. Similarly, studies on internal accounting are also limited. Reported by D. V. Ramana <ramana[at]ximb.ac.in> and Jacob D. Vakkayil <jacobdvakkayil[at]yahoo.com> http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.14 Arindam Mukherjee (arindamm[at]iimcal.ac.in) Guides: 1. Mukherjee, A. (2004). "Workflow systems: selected issues." Unpublished manuscript. 2. Mukherjee, A., Sen, A. K., and Bagchi, A (2004). "Information analysis in workflows represented as task-precedence metagraphs." Paper presented at the Fourteenth Annual Workshop On Information Technologies And Systems (WITS 2004), Washington DC, USA. 3. Mentzas, G., Halaris, C., and Kavadias, S. (2001). "Modeling business processes with workflow systems: an evaluation of alternative approaches." International Journal of Information Management, 21(2), 123-135. The following issues were discussed in the seminar: * Business processes and workflows * Existing methods for graphical representation of processes/workflows * Task Precedence Metagraphs (TPMGs) * Workflow analysis and verification using TPMGs * General issues regarding the use of graphical tools for representing complex processes Modern organizations are changing from function-based structures to process-based structures. In this context, efforts at 'business process re-engineering' seek to achieve better customer service through radical reconfigurations of work processes. Processes are sets of activities with a common goal. Business processes include material and information processes. A particular process can consist of a number of workflow sequences. A workflow is the automation of a business process wholly or partially, and consists of a set of partially ordered activities, which are undertaken, with the help of human or organizational resources. There are many methods for representing processes and workflows graphically. The WfMC process diagrams propounded by Workflow Management Coalition are widely adopted. The main focus here is on the precedence relationships between tasks. However, they do not show inputs and outputs at a particular stage. Basu and Blanning (2000) sought to answer this problem by introducing metagraphs. It is a directed graph where each node represents one or more information elements (items). An input set of items is supplied at the start. This specifies the business information initially available. Similarly, an output set is the set of items that are desired as output of the process. The metagraph approach is more appropriate than the matrix manipulation approach when processing of information is of primary interest. However, they are less suitable for the portrayal of task precedence and flow of control. Moreover, no clear distinction is drawn between OR joints & AND joins in metagraphs. Task Precedence Meta Graphs (TPMG) aim to overcome these problems. The following issues were addressed in the development of TPMGs. * Can the model have capabilities to easily verify the correctness of a process? * Can the model facilitate informational analysis, functional analysis and organisational analysis? * Can the model have the capabilities to represent temporal behaviour of the process so as to enable temporal analysis of the process such as consistency, prediction and scheduling? The architects of TPMGs sought to achieve the above objectives by the use of 'edges' and 'nodes' as the primary elements in its construction. Edges are of two types. The first is a 'task' that denotes activities to be done at a particular stage and is shown using bold arrows. The second is called a 'propagation edge' and is shown as a lightly drawn arrow illustrating the link of an item from the outgoing end of a task to the incoming end of another task. There are also two types of nodes in TPMGs. An 'init node' has a single outgoing edge corresponding to a task and is shown as a bold oval. On the other hand a 'prop node' can have multiple outgoing edges, all of which are propagation edges and are shown as lightly drawn ovals. Unlike simple metagraphs, 'and' and 'or' nodes are differentiated through various symbols in TPMGs. Various graph search algorithms could be developed for efficient use of TPMGs in workflow analysis. The seminar leader explained the mechanics of one such algorithm developed for the purpose of ascertaining whether input set 'A' was sufficient to produce an output set 'B' and whether an item 'a' was essential for producing an item 'b'. The algorithm can be extended to resolve queries related to tasks and resources and to handle temporal constraints. The verification process adopted to identify errors in process models in their design stages was also discussed. Errors can be semantic or syntactic. Semantic errors can be avoided with a clear understanding of the business processes that are being represented in the TPMG. Syntactic errors can result from the incorrect use of workflow modelling constructs. Syntactic errors such as 'deadlock', 'lack of synchronization', 'non-terminating cycles', and 'dangling nodes' were discussed in this context. The algorithm cited earlier could be enhanced to verify the syntactic correctness of a TPMG. During the course of the seminar, the similarities of information based workflows and material based workflows in several contexts were discussed. Various questions related to the use of graphical devices for representing complex, real-world processes were also raised. The uses of these graphs were identified to be two-fold. They aid communication and facilitate analysis of a business process. However, it is not easy, if at all possible to represent all the complexities of a business process graphically. At the core of a workflow analysis is the urge to standardise activities for ensuring efficiency. However, many activities are too complex for standardisation. Processes such as research and development seek to achieve innovation and their representations as routine processes will be inaccurate. Questions were also raised about the decomposability of managerial processes. It was felt that the assumption that they could be decomposed into clearly defined activities should be re-examined. Process reengineering studies typically analyse how a given process can be improved to obtain maximum efficiency. They however, do not provide answers to more strategic questions such as whether an organization should be in a particular line of business or not. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from Jaydeep Mukherjee <jaydeep[at]ximb.ac.in> http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.15 K. Ravikiran Sharma, SDMIMD, Mysore (k.r.sharma[at]iitb.ac.in) The following issues were discussed in the seminar: * Issues related to the choice of a doctoral programme * Support systems for academic decision-making * Communication skills in reporting research PART 1 An exploration of the seminar leader’s personal journey, threw light on factors that affect the process of educational decision-making. These were discussed in detail with respect to how aspiring research scholars chose doctoral programmes. Persons applying to doctoral programmes allow various non-academic factors to influence their choice of an institution. Very often, considerations such as location of the institute, personal perceptions and fantasies, climate of the place, etc., can profoundly influence the decision. In India, the lack of adequate support systems for aiding this process can make this especially difficult for aspiring scholars. In such a scenario, the candidate’s own initiative in seeking relevant information assumes increased importance. A good way to begin this process of decision-making could be to look into the reasons for wanting to pursue a doctoral programme. Once this is done, the general body of literature in one’s broad area of interest should be identified. Becoming familiar with this body of literature will facilitate the formulation of potential research problems. The educational system can facilitate the decision-making process by providing opportunities for exploring various areas of interest starting at the undergraduate level. Aspiring scholars should be guided to choose a university and a programme that fit their interests. The choice of a guide is extremely important and one should strive to ensure that there is a good match between the guide’s expectations and one’s own interests. PART 2 Communication skills form an integral part of the required repertoire of skills for any researcher. There is a need to apply these at many levels in the research process. At the input level, these skills can play a vital role in the choice of methods and in how these are applied. The kind of information that the researcher wants to elicit from a sample or population informs how these skills would be used in the collection of data. At the output level, communication skills are employed in reporting one’s research within a community of scholars and to the larger public. The seminar leader chose to dwell at length on heuristic rules that are commonly applied in reporting one’s research, focusing on skills related to the twin aspects of written communication and oral presentations. The need for adequate skills in absorbing and assimilating information was emphasized. This included literature review skills, reading skills and data skills. The seminar leader identified clarity, correctness, completeness and conciseness as desirable qualities of a written report. He emphasized the importance of following emerging conventions such as the preference of endnotes over footnotes in a document. The structure of a typical research report and the order of various elements in it were also discussed. In an oral presentation, it is desirable that the content is presented in a logical order. The role of audience feedback in oral presentations was specially emphasized. The researcher can use information about the structure, typical age, ability, attitude and size of the audience to customize the presentation. The ability to present one’s work to a wide range of audience is most often an indication of the depth of the researcher’s understanding of the topic. Researchers often have to interact with groups of other researchers. Designing effective conversations that facilitate purposeful communication among these groups requires skills and expertise. Thus reporting research is a continuous process that involves communication at various levels involving diverse participants. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.16 Thillai Rajan Annamalai, Infosys, Bangalore (thillai_Annamalai[at]infosys.com) Guides: 1. Yin, R. K. (1994). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage 2. Glaser, B. G. and Strauss, A. L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine. 3. Rajan A. T. and Ram, A. V. (2000). Towards developing a processual understanding of power sector reform: The case of Orissa State Electricity Board. Utilities Policy, 9(3), 93-10 4. Rajan A. T. and Ram, A.V. (2003). Roles of principal players during restructuring: The case of Orissa State Electricity Board. In Transformative Organizations: A Global Perspective (pp. 65-84), Edited by Vipin Gupta, New Delhi: Sage. In the literature on organisational reform and restructuring, changes within an organisation are often seen as response to changes in the external environment. These changes could be continuous evolutionary changes or discontinuous revolutionary changes. The seminar leader drew on a study on power sector reforms in Orissa, undertaken as part of his doctoral work to illustrate this. The chief components of reform program were restructuring of the Orissa State Electricity Board (OSEB) by unbundling, corporatisation, privatisation, promoting competition, establishing a separate regulatory authority and tariff reform. The generation, transmission, and distribution of power were unbundled to facilitate these. Through an exploratory study that analysed the chain of events at re-structuring, the researcher identified three distinct phases in this period of transition. * In the ‘Impetus phase’, the momentum for change originated and got strengthened. * In the ‘re-organisation phase’ a new industry structure emerged. * In the ‘consolidation phase’ new organisations were strengthened. Factors leading to reform were categorised as follows: * Contextual factors that were the primary drivers initiating the process of change. * Facilitating factors, the presence of which created a favourable environment for reform. * Trigger factors that referred to critical events that created a compelling necessity to implement reform. The poor performance of OSEB and certain conditions imposed by the World Bank for funding various projects were the chief contextual factors that led to reform. He identified ‘political interference', lack of commercial culture, poor pricing and investment practices, poor billing and collection, high distribution losses, and non-payment of subsidies as causes for the poor performance. During the discussion, the possible bias in terms like ‘political interference’ was pointed out. It was also noted that performance could be evaluated, based on a number of criteria other than economic criteria. The facilitating factors included favourable government policies, support from the top management of OSEB, and the absence of a powerful agricultural lobby that depended on power subsidies. The chief trigger factor was the inability of the Government of Orissa to raise finances for completing the Upper Indravati hydroelectric project without depending upon the World Bank. This led to a discussion on how researchers often make intuitive categorisations during the course of their work. Such categorisations and associated vocabulary are aimed at bringing order and facilitating useful discussions in an area of study. Often this usefulness is a measure of their validity. However, following some accepted procedures for such ‘idea structuring’ could contribute to their defensibility and facilitate their systematic contestation. Case studies of the type carried out by the seminar leader rely on analytical (rather than statistical) generalisation and depth of understanding to achieve validity and reliability. The research design sought to achieve construct validity (agreement between operational measures and theoretical concepts), internal validity (establishment of causal relationships), external validity (establishment of a domain in which the findings can be generalised) and reliability (for repeatability of findings). Case studies focus on events in their natural settings and are suitable for studies where context is of high importance. They have strong potential for revealing complexity and help to understand various phenomena as they actually occur in a particular setting. They are especially effective for exploratory studies Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in> with inputs from Prof. DV Ramana <ramana[at]ximb.ac.in> http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.17 V. Nagi Reddy, IIM Calcutta (Retired) (vnr[at]iimcal.ac.in) Regression models can be broadly classified into linear and nonlinear types. This can further be classified into deterministic and stochastic models. At a basic level, one aims to find out the existence of a relationship between independent and dependent variables. Data could be time-series data or cross-sectional data. To draw a sample, we require a sampling frame. Convenient sample should reflect the target population that a person wants to study. Crosschecks need to be done to examine whether the data are collected in a random manner or not. The seminar leader opined that transparency in sampling would contribute to the objectivity of the study. He also suggested that, in general, systematic sampling yielded better results than most other sampling techniques. There are two variables that determine the size of the sample. One is the permissible error and the other is the level of confidence. In general, a smaller sample size would yield a larger error. As the rarity of the phenomenon studied increases, or the variability of data decreases, one requires larger sample sizes to obtain the same level of confidence. The seminar leader examined the basic multivariate regression model and assumptions in that model. The input variables have to be independent, the sample size should be at least two more than the number of independent variables, and the error in the model should be normally distributed with mean zero and variance Sigma Square. One of the most important assumptions in the multivariate regression model is that of homoscedasticity, which implies that, the variance is constant throughout the observations. The seminar leader elaborated on tests that need to be done to find out whether in a given data and model the error is homoscedastic or not. In case this assumption does not hold true, various methods for pre-processing the data have to be applied so that homoscedasticity is attained. Gauss Least Square Method is used to find the values of the coefficients of the model. This estimator is considered to be the Best Linear Unbiased Estimator (BLUE). The basics of time series modeling, including ARIMA models were briefly discussed. The possibility of serial correlation in time-series data was also highlighted. Reported by Prof. K M Rajesh <rajesh[at]ximb.ac.in> and Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in> http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.18 Kajri Misra, Doctoral Scholar, Cornell Univrsity <km245[at]cornell.edu> The seminar leader sought to examine issues related to research in professional fields in the context of her doctoral studies. Six other cases of doctoral research were also considered to analyze the questions that emerged. She also took inputs from a review of the doctoral programme at her department in which she was actively involved. A comparison was made between disciplinary research and professional research. Adding to the cumulative knowledge of a particular discipline through original contribution is a commonly recognized objective of good disciplinary research. The conceptual basis of a discipline is expected to be stable and there is usually a tradition of research that sets the tone for new studies. Professional research is typically multidisciplinary and rooted in real life problems. The practice base constantly shifts, evolves and renews itself. This is reflected in the choice of problems and in research design. The tussle between context specificity and universality of research moulds the manner in which researchers proceed. Through extensive preliminary readings of related concepts, theories and empirical findings the researcher aims to sharpen the terms in which a research problem is posed and decides on a research design. In professional research, conceptual boundaries tend to be uncertain and there is often the need to examine works in a number of related disciplines. Understanding the limits of concepts used in one’s study is necessary before the researcher can define a problem precisely. There are two approaches possible at this stage. One could fall back upon previously explored constructs and meanings. However, there is the danger of falling into set ways of thinking and overlooking the possibility that previous attempts may be insufficient for one’s purpose. Here, the researcher has to make a conscious decision that suits his/her research objectives. The doctoral study under discussion examined the comparative efficacy of different institutional arrangements for decentralized local governance. The researcher zeroed in on Jan Kooiman’s exposition of the concept of ‘governance’ for the purpose of her study. ‘Decentralisation’ was examined, based on public choice theory democratic theory, public administration theory and organization theory. The Seminar Leader also illustrated how orginal research questions can change as the study progresses. In the context of the current study, the adequacy of the original research design and methodology for addressing the changed question was also discussed. There was some discussion on what ‘theory’ is. It was suggested that while concepts denoted ideas or assumptions, theories are interconnected concepts that lead to certain expectations. Nevertheless, theories are simple approximations of complex practical worlds. The value of one’s research could also be assessed from two dimensions. Criteria that are external to the problem under study (e.g., peer acceptance) drive many researchers. Effective criteria however, are intrinsic to the system and are also called technical criteria. Rigour is a consideration at all stages of a research process especially in following a research methodology. It is commonly understood as the level of thoroughness, confidence, and control that ensures quality of research findings. In professional fields there is also the added onus of being relevant and useful for a system of users. Thus a professional field often builds knowledge by enhancing the effectiveness of a functioning system. Review, assembling and systematization of practitioners’ knowledge for further improving practice, are also legitimate ways of knowledge building in professional fields. The multidisciplinary orientation ensures that addition to the field can be decided only after multiple bodies of knowledge related to the action or process being studied are reasonably explored. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.19 Snigdha Pattnaik, XIMB <snigdha[at]ximb.ac.in> The seminar sought to establish the link between self-awareness as an important attribute for researchers and the set of research skills that need to be part of their repertoire. Skills required by researchers can be identified only if there is an understanding about who a researcher is. As a convenient starting point, a list of skills necessary for doctoral scholars that was compiled by the current doctoral students at XIMB was presented. A few of the skills that were discussed are given below: a. Skills required for coursework: Information search skills – using libraries, search engines, etc. Information evaluation skills – checking authenticity of sources, bias, etc. Communication skills – oral, written, non-verbal Stress Management skills – obtaining maximum personal effectiveness Time Management skills – planning, prioritising Negotiation skills – with groups, individuals Balancing skills – doing justice to one’s roles (institutional, and non-institutional) Decision-making skills – committing after a reasonable examination of factors Self-motivation Skills – driving oneself in a sustained manner b. Skills required during the pre-registration period: Planning skills – setting objectives, goal, allocating resources Self-learning skills – posing questions to oneself, seeking answers, knowing where to look Higher order thinking skills – analytical and synthetic Doubting skills - constructive scepticism, challenging set patterns, Problem-formulation skills – clarifying concepts, identifying questions Interpersonal skills – to make one’s interactions with advisors, colleagues, authorities Self appraisal skills – evaluating and correcting oneself constantly Uncertainty handling skills – functioning in uncertain situations Multiplicity skills – handling several frameworks, perspectives, opinions concurrently c. Skills required during the post-registration period and beyond: Advanced Data skills – collecting, analysing, interpreting, using statistical tools Report writing skills – attention to detail, knowledge of doctoral thesis conventions Project management skills – implementing the research project Promotional skills – creating enthusiasm for one’s work among others Educational skills – designing and teaching post-graduate level courses Advisory skills – guiding other researchers Leadership skills – Leading the change to a new understanding, perspective, paradigm? These skills were classified on the basis of the various stages of a typical doctoral programme in management in India. It was pointed out that apart from this practical criterion various other criteria could be used for the classification of these skills. For example, the joint statement of the UK Research Councils and Arts and Humanities Research Board about skills that doctoral students would be expected to develop during their research training categorizes them under the following heads: Research skills and techniques Research environment Research management Personal effectiveness Communication Networking and team working (Source: http://www.grad.ac.uk/gradschool/3_2_1.jsp) It was also noted that the list’s level of detail could also be varied through sub-classifications or aggregations. One way to look at the skills imparted through a doctoral programme is as expectations. Institutions of higher learning need to be sensitive to such expectations and doctoral programmes should be structured to meet them. However, self-aware researchers typically take stock of any mismatch between one’s skill set and these expectations. The seminar leader guided the group through various exercises that illustrated the fact that whatever a person does is coloured by what he/she is. Do personality factors also affect the work of a researcher? The ignorance of one's own self is viewed in existentialism and Zen buddhism as the source of much human suffering. It seems rational to argue that this proposition extends to the domain of research as well. The ability to take stock of one’s traits, feelings and behaviours is commonly referred to as self-awareness. In this context, a distinction was made between the perceived self (the way we see ourselves), the real self (the way we truly are), and the ideal self (the way we would like to be). Emotional self-awareness is also an essential component in achieving a true understanding of the self. The question whether increased levels of self-awareness could lead to complacency was also discussed. The role of change and the researcher’s need for a certain amount of dissatisfaction with one’s own self was acknowledged. However since true self-awareness also recognizes one’s own potential, this apparent dissatisfaction can lead to realistic changes in the future. Therefore researchers should strive to achieve a clear self- understanding so that there is clarity regarding motives that drive one’s research decisions. Personality factors shape research decisions like choice of a problem, or methodology. Being aware of this helps the researcher to exercise more control over the subjectivity of his/her work. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash Manufacturing Companies http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.20 B. Venakata Phani, IIM Calcutta <phani[at]iimcal.ac.in> Guide: Phani, B. V. (2004). Insider ownership, corporate governance, and corporate performance. Unpublished Draft. The seminar focused on the phenomenon of insider ownership, in the context of a research project that investigated the relationship between the presence of insider-ownership and corporate performance of companies in India. In many Asian economies where family-owned businesses thrive, owners or promoters often also act as managers. The control these insider-owners exert in running the firm, often does not match their financial stake in the company. In India, this discrepancy in the control and cash flow rights of the insiders have been further exacerbated by protectionist policies of the government and a weak regulatory framework. This provides opportunities for expropriation of a firm's resources by insiders at the expense of the other stakeholders. Literature on the topic is divided on how performance varied with respect to insider ownership. While some studies claimed that insider ownership enhanced performance others found the opposite to be true. In the context of the Seminar Leader’s study that sought to inspect this relationship in the Indian context, the following research issues were examined. 1. Opting for doctoral studies and choosing the research problem By sharing his experiences with a family run firm, the seminar leader threw light on the factors that led him to opt for doctoral studies and the choice of the particular research problem. Many family-owned businesses in India are managed by insiders and the issues associated with insider ownership in India are different from those in other countries. Thus, there was a need to analyze insider ownership in the Indian context. 2. Defining constructs ‘Insiders’ were identified as owners, excluding the general public, banks, and financial institutions. This was a categorization based on the researcher’s intuitive judgment of the situation. Performance was taken to be financial performance based on accounting measures. 3. Defining the research question The researcher formulated the research question as: “What is the relationship between insider ownership and performance of the firm?” The hypotheses postulated sought to gain insight into how insider ownership varies with, overall efficiencies, operational efficiencies, residual income, capital structure, and market perception of the firm. 3. Selecting a timeframe The period of time considered for the study was from 1989-2000. This was selected, based on the observation that during this period, the Indian economy was undergoing a transformation from a planned economy to a market economy. The researcher divided this time period into four distinct phases and aggregated data accordingly. This division was based on the premise that these periods represented different phases in this transition. Various regulatory mechanisms were put in place by the concerned agencies during each of these phases. 4. Choosing sample The sample chosen for the study consisted of Indian private limited companies listed in the CMIE database, that do not have foreign collaborations. This was done because of the assessment of the researcher that companies with foreign collaborations were usually more professionally managed and insider ownership of the variety that was studied would not be present among them. 5. Choosing variables Performance was taken to be a function of size of the firm, age of the firm and insider ownership. The first two control variables were arrived at after extensive literature review that found a number of studies indicating the presence of a relationship between these variables and performance. 6. Selecting appropriate measures for the variables Performance was assessed using the following measures: Return on Assets, Profit Margin, Asset-Turnover Ratio, Interst Cover, Manpower Ratio, Reinvestment Rate, Debt-Equity Ratio, Corporate Debt-Total Debt Ratio, and Foreign Borrowings-Total Debt Ratio. The researcher did not use standard market based measures for assessing performance because of the highly volatile nature of Indian markets accentuated by recurrent crises during the period of study. The non-availability of market data for majority of firms in the sample and the speculative nature of market transactions were other deterrents. ‘Total sales’ was taken as a measure of size of the firm and the age of the firm was calculated from the date of incorporation. 6. Analyzing data Since three variables influenced the independent variable in the empirical model employed for the study, multiple linear regressions were used to ascertain the relationship between variables. There was some discussion on the conditions to be fulfilled by the data for linear regression to be used. One of these was the condition of linearity. In the study, sales data was linearized by considering the logarithm of the sales amount. It was pointed out that other devices of linearisation like a sales index could also be used. 7. Obtaining results The data analysis revealed that the presence of insider ownership did not have a significant relationship with the performance of the firm. 8. Interpreting results The above outcome was attributed to the unique nature of ownership and governance structures of Indian companies where family-controlled businesses were the norm rather than the exception. Unlike business families elsewhere in the world, in India some ethnic communities had a considerable influence on the conduct of its members. The consequences of disapproval from the community would be long-lasting. This ensured that shareholder interests were the priority even in insider owned firms in India. Though the results indicated the unlikelihood of misappropriations detrimental to shareholder interests, it did not rule out misappropriations altogether. It was suggested that the state was the victim of the widespread expropriations that insider owners resorted to. 9. Setting directions for future research Ways of going beyond the current study were also discussed. One option could be by taking a behavioral approach that could examine the motivational aspects leading to misappropriation. During the discussions, the presence of stakeholders other than the shareholders was also pointed out. For example, local communities are also stakeholders as certain corporate decisions have profound impact on their ways of life. The scope of the concept of ‘performance’ in the current study was limited to maximizing shareholder wealth. This could be expanded, considering the interests of other stakeholders as well. The change in the presence of insider ownership as protectionist policies are removed and the institutional, legal and regulatory framework strengthened could also be studied further. Although companies account for a comparatively small portion India’s economic activity, researchers often find it convenient to study them, as financial data are easily available. This approach to research was questioned and the need to go beyond data availability as a decision factor for selecting a researchable problem was asserted. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.21 Anjali Gera Roy, IIT Kharagpur <agera_99[at]yahoo.com> Guide: Roy, Anjali (2004). Only Connect: Holding Post-Colonial Ground in the Global Village. Resistance and Reconciliation. xxx. 152-167. Roy, Anjali (2004). The Local as Global: Resistance of the Place Form in Post-colonial Cultures. Unpublished Draft. The seminar leader examined commonly held understandings of the phenomenon of globalisation. It was often understood as a phenomenon of homogenisation of the world. The word ‘global’ indicated an overarching perspective and a higher scale of thought. Ease and speed of interconnectivity have taken cross-cultural movements to a scale that is larger than ever before. The dominance of the media is another factor that characterises globalisation today. The seminar leader identified two dominant responses to the phenomenon of globalisation. One was ‘celebratory’ where as the other was ‘anxious’. Management literature has on the whole followed the former perspective illustrating the desirability of sharing knowledge and resources. Analysts in other fields have often highlighted the fear that this wave might lead to a global monoculture obliterating local identities. There is also the concern that it is a new mode of cultural and economic imperialism. However, the very technological advances that facilitated a homogenising globalisation have also given rise to increasingly assertive localisations. Due to the availability of appropriate technology, geographical proximity is no longer a prerequisite for a sense of cultural unity. Dispersed populations are increasingly asserting their own identities and often displacement from the ‘homeland’ serves to accentuate this sense of cultural identity. Simultaneous interplay of the opposing forces of globalisation and localisation has given rise to what some label as the phenomenon of ‘Glocalisation’. This is exemplified by multinational companies like Coca Cola and McDonalds that attempt to fuse the global with the local for commercial success. Culture was interpreted as a way of life or doing things. The notions of high and low cultures were examined. Vernacular and cosmopolitan are mere labels and can easily be reassigned. What is vernacular in a particular situation might be labeled as cosmopolitan in another context. Thus, these are best described as fluid concepts that differed a great deal depending on contexts of location or time. . Postcolonial and postmodern thinking have emphasised the perspective of the ‘other.’ Marginalised societies and their ways of thinking are progressively being recognised. However, even as this is welcome, one should realise that this might be used to review the western self. True synthesis of cultures is impossible because of their incommensurability. Meaningful culture contact can only occur in the intercultural space. The global individual is endowed with the opportunity to choose what he/she wants to be. A critical awareness seems to be what gives anchor to the individual swayed by the dual influences of homogenising globalisation and a differentiating localisation. This seems to correspond to the concept of ‘cultural intelligence’ suggested in recent writings in Management. However, the term culture in the field of Management is limitedly used to denote organizational culture and the discipline is yet to draw profitably from the field of culture studies. Discussions during the seminar also sought to distinguish between commonly employed research methodologies in the humanities and social sciences. The former seems to favour interpretative methods where as the latter prefers empirical methods. However, of late, there has been increased deviation from these predominant modes in both categories. For example, Film studies tend to use audience analysis while sciences are beginning to look at the notion of constructed reality seriously. Historians are also recognising the value of interpreted oral histories that complement a more ‘scientific’ study of history using written records. Humanities however, constantly draw from the results of empirical research in other disciplines and set future directions by the introduction of new concepts and ways of thinking. As opposed to scientific research, the need for verifiability, falsifiability, consensual agreement, and hence a common language and vocabulary are not compelling factors in the humanities. Multiple interpretations are accepted for their own inherent worth, though researchers often feel the need to conform to disciplinary power structures that moderate scholarship. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from DP Dash http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.22 Jaydeep Mukherjee, XIMB (jaydeep[at]ximb.ac.in) The decision of an individual to take up doctoral studies is the result of the complex interplay of a number of factors. Some of the most commonly cited reasons include: * The desire to be recognized for one’s original contribution to a field * The aspiration to belong to a community of scholars working in a particular field * The desire to have a wider array of career options as a result of the doctoral qualification * The desire to engage in a profession with reasonable degree of operational freedom (typically academic careers) Some find the day-to-day drudgery of work overbearing and believe that an exploration of the frontiers of new ideas can stimulate them. Others view doctoral research as a way of resolving a perceived inconsistency between their theoretical understanding and practical experience. Often doctoral studies act as a device for managing anxiety caused by various situations and events. It was pointed out that such drivers of one’s decision might not easily be evident even to oneself. Personal and group interaction with others including one’s guide can help in recognizing these. The choice of a guide most often depends on a good match of the expectations that the potential researcher and the guide has of each other. Varied practices of research guidance exist. It was pointed out that the possibility of the guide’s biasing influence on the researcher’s work couldn’t be discounted. Often, there is the need for a balance between constant guidance and creative non-interference so that the scholar develops critical skills such as those associated with choosing a research problem. The program often proceeds in cycles of intense and moderate activity. Apart from one’s principal guide, there is the need for good sounding boards to sharpen one’s ideas. In this context, the impact of specific research programs that follow specialized research traditions and practices was discussed. These tend to serve the above purpose by nurturing the researchers and enabling them to place themselves in a supportive community. In such situations, research stages such as problem selection and definition tend to be completed comparatively faster. The rigours of a structured doctoral programme tend to impose a certain extent of discipline on the researcher by setting restrictions. This facilitates better control of the research process especially in the initial stages such as the pinpointing of a researchable problem without drifting unrestrainedly. On the other hand, institutional pressure to meet deadlines might also lead to compromises on the part of the researcher. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from Jaydeep Mukherjee http://www1.ximb.ac.in/RW.nsf/pages/R2.23 Jaydeep Mukherjee, XIMB (jaydeep[at]ximb.ac.in) The issues involved in the evolution of the seminar leader’s on-going doctoral study on ‘commercially successful product innovation process in emerging markets’ were examined. Emerging markets are characterized by incomplete regulatory mechanisms, inadequate distributional structures and the absence of institutional support for consumer protection. There is tremendous income disparity and socio-cultural diversity in such markets leading to largely unpredictable consumer buying behavior. Due to factors such as globalization, and rapid growth of technology, product life cycles have shortened, making new product innovation a core process that needs to be sustained continually. The seminar leader proposed a framework for this process in context of emerging markets and identified five key challenges. These were: strategic challenge, development challenge, production challenge, commercial challenge, and marketing challenge. These were examined in the context of project, company and industry level systems that facilitated new product introduction process and how they interfaced. The researcher realized that a comprehensive study of the whole process was beyond the scope of a doctoral level study. Moreover, it was also found that most existing frameworks did not focus on the success of the product. These factors prompted the researcher to take up the ‘marketing challenge’ of the new product introduction process and study how commercial success of innovative new products could be ensured. This choice was also the result of a need to place the work and the researcher in a particular functional area and marketing was a natural choice considering prior work-experience in the area. Consumers typically face risk and uncertainty in adopting a new product. One way to reduce the risk involved in the adoption of a new product is by seeking more information about the product. However, a sufficient level of information is often difficult to obtain and consumers fall back on other mechanisms to bridge this gap. Based on a review of literature in psychology the researcher found that trust was a key device that people employed in reducing risk and uncertainty. Extending this to the area of marketing, he proposed that ‘trust’ was one of the central mechanisms involved in consumer adoption of new products. Consumer trust typically results from a combination of marketing inputs, direct experiences and indirect experiences. These can either be related to the product in question or the marketer of the product. The presence of the above factors can vary depending on whether a product is the result of a radical innovation in which case the consumer would not have any direct experience of the product or incremental innovation where the product is not absolutely new to the consumer. The same applies for new players in the market and new products by established firms. It was pointed out that the study could adopt different approaches to study the nature of the relationship between trust and new product adoption. The seminar leader chose to embrace a study through the use of variables and sought to answer questions such as: What are the variables involved? Can these variables be measured? What are the best measures that could be used? How valid and reliable are these measures? After an extensive review of literature, the researcher decided that the inquiry would focus on the effect of marketing inputs (independent variable) on purchase intention (dependent variable). Consumer trust on the new product offer was deemed to be the intervening variable in this chain and purchase intention was taken as the best estimator of actual purchase behaviour. It was pointed out that this chain could also be considered as part of a network of variables. This approach might be more useful in examining interrelationships where causation is not clear and one cannot employ categorizations such as dependent, independent and intervening variables. The seminar leader presented a tentative questionnaire prepared for the study and this led to discussions regarding how questionnaires serve as devices for interaction between the researcher and the respondents. Often this is a single stage process. The possibility of expanding this as a multistage process where the researcher can develop a stable relationship with the respondent was explored. It was also pointed out how researchers typically ignore certain ‘defective responses’ obtained through questionnaires. However, such responses might point to shortcomings in the design of the questionnaire or to the insufficiency of the questionnaire method itself to study the problem at hand. Reported by Jacob D Vakkayil <u504001[at]ximb.ac.in>, with inputs from Jaydeep Mukherjee | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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